SYS_LINUX

turnserver application: a TURN relay server implementation

Usage:

       $ turnserver [flags] [-n | -c <config-file>] [ --db=<sqlite-db-file> | --userdb=<sqlite-db-file> | --psql-userdb=<db-conn-string> | --mysql-userdb=<db-conn-string> | --mongo-userdb=<db-conn-string>  | --redis-userdb=<db-conn-string> ] [options]
       $ turnserver -h

Flags:

  • -v, –verbose ‘Moderate’ verbose mode.
  • -V, –Verbose ‘Extra’ verbose mode, very annoying and not recommended.
  • -o, –daemon Run server process as daemon.
  • -f, –fingerprint Use fingerprints in the TURN messages. If an incoming request contains fingerprint, then TURN server will always add fingerprints to the messages in this session, regardless of the per-server setting.
  • -a, –lt-cred-mech Use long-term credentials mechanism (this one you need for WebRTC usage).
  • -z, –no-auth Do not use any credentials mechanism, allow anonymous access. Opposite to -a and -A options.
  • –use-auth-secret TURN REST API flag. Flag that sets a special WebRTC authorization option that is based upon authentication secret. This feature purpose is to support “TURN Server REST API” as described in TURNServerRESTAPI.pdf in the docs. This option is used with long-term credentials mechanism.
  • –oauth Support oAuth authentication, as in the RFC 7635. The oAuth keys must be stored in the database, and handled by an external program. The TURN server expects the keys to be present in the database, and the TURN server does not handle the keys by itself. In the specs document, section 4.1, several key-management schemes are proposed and to be followed by the external key-management program.
  • –dh566 Use 566 bits DH TLS key. Default size of the key is 1066.
  • –dh2066 Use 2066 bits DH TLS key. Default size of the key is 1066.
  • –no-tlsv1 Do not allow TLSv1 protocol.
  • –no-tlsv1_1 Do not allow TLSv1.1 protocol.
  • –no-tlsv1_2 Do not allow TLSv1.2 protocol.
  • –no-udp Do not start ‘plain’ UDP listeners.
  • –no-tcp Do not start ‘plain’TCP listeners.
  • –no-tls Do not start TLS listeners.
  • –no-dtls Do not start DTLS listeners. This is recommended when you do not need DTLS. With this option, the plain UDP works faster.
  • –no-udp-relay Do not allow UDP relay endpoints defined in RFC 5766, use only TCP relay endpoints as defined in RFC 6062.
  • –no-tcp-relay Do not allow TCP relay endpoints defined in RFC 6062, use only UDP relay endpoints as defined in RFC 5766.
  • –stale-nonce Use extra security with nonce value having limited lifetime (600 secs).
  • –no-stdout-log Flag to prevent stdout log messages. By default, all log messages are going to both stdout and to the configured log. With this option everything will be going to the configured log file only (unless the log file itself is stdout).
  • –syslog Flag to redirect everything into the system log (syslog).
  • –simple-log This flag means that no log file rollover will be used, and the log file name will be constructed as-is, without PID and date appendage. This option can be used, for example, together with logrotate tool.
  • –no-loopback-peers Disallow peers on the loopback addresses (127.x.x.x and ::1).
  • –allow-loopback-peers Allow peers on the loopback addresses (127.x.x.x and ::1). Allow it only for testing in a development environment! In production it adds a possible security vulnerability, and so due to security reasons, it is not allowed using it together with empty cli-password.
  • –no-multicast-peers Disallow peers on well-known broadcast addresses (224.0.0.0 and above, and FFXX:*).
  • –udp-self-balance (recommended for older Linuxes only) balance the UDP traffic among the aux endpoints (for clients supporting 300 ALTERNATE-SERVER response). See –aux-server option.
  • –secure-stun Require authentication of the STUN Binding request. By default, the clients are allowed anonymous access to the STUN Binding functionality.
  • -S, –stun-only Run as STUN server only, all TURN requests will be ignored. Option to suppress TURN functionality, only STUN requests will be processed.
  • –no-stun Run as TURN server only, all STUN requests will be ignored. Option to suppress STUN functionality, only TURN requests will be processed.
  • –mobility Mobility with ICE (MICE) specs support.
  • –no-cli Turn OFF the CLI support. By default it is always ON, and the process turnserver accepts the telnet client connections on IP address 127.0.0.1, port 5766. See also options –cli-ip, –cli-port and –cli-password.
  • –server-relay Server relay. NON-STANDARD AND DANGEROUS OPTION. Only for an application that want to run a server on the relay endpoints. This option eliminates the IP permissions check on the packets incoming to the relay endpoints. That makes the system vulnerable to DOS attack, for example, among other bad things. The rule is: if you do not understand what is this option about and why would you need it, then you absolutely must NOT use it under any circumstances. See http://tools.ietf.org/search/rfc5766#section-17.2.3 .
  • –check-origin-consistency The flag that sets the origin consistency check: across the session, all requests must have the same main ORIGIN attribute value (if the ORIGIN was initially used by the session).
  • -h Help.

Config file setting:

  • -n Do not use configuration file, use only command line parameters.
  • -c<file-name> Configuration file name (default – turnserver.conf). The format of config file can be seen in the supplied examples/etc/turnserver.conf example file. Long names of the options are used as the configuration items names in the file. If not an absolute path is supplied, then the file is searched in the following directories:
    • current directory
    • current directory etc/ subdirectory
    • upper directory level etc/
    • /etc/
    • /usr/local/etc/

User database settings:

  • -b, –db, –userdb <sqlite-file-name>

SQLite database file name. If no database option is defined, then an SQLite database is implied by default, with default location /usr/local/var/db/turndb, or /var/db/turndb, or /var/lib/turn/turndb, depending on the platform.

  • -e, –psql-userdb, –sql-userdb <connection-string>

User database connection string for PostgreSQL.

The connection string format is like that:

"host=<host> dbname=<dbname> user=<db-user> password=<db-user-password> connect_timeout=<seconds>"

(for 8.x or newer Postgres), or:

"postgresql://username:password@hostname:port/databasename"

(for 9.x or newer Postgres). See the INSTALL file for more explanations and examples.

Also, see http://www.PostgreSQL.org for full PostgreSQL documentation. * -M, –mysql-userdb <connection-string>

User database connection string for MySQL.

The (proprietary) connection string format is like that:

"host=<host> dbname=<dbname> user=<db-user> password=<db-user-password> connect_timeout=<seconds>".

See the INSTALL file for more explanations and examples.

Also, see http://www.mysql.org for full MySQL documentation.

Optional connection string parameters for the secure communications (SSL): ca, capath, cert, key, cipher (see http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.1/en/ssl-options.html for the command options description).

  • -N, –redis-userdb <connection-string>

User database connection string for Redis.

The (proprietary) connection string format is like that:

"ip=<ip-addr> dbname=<number> password=<db-password> connect_timeout=<seconds>".

See the INSTALL file for more explanations and examples.

Also, see http://redis.io for full Redis documentation.

  • -J, –mongo-userdb <connection-string>

User database connection string for MongoDB.

The connection string format is like that:

"mongodb://username:password@host:port/database?options".

See the INSTALL file for more explanations and examples.

Also, see http://docs.mongodb.org/manual/ for full MongoDB documentation.

Options:

  • -d, –listening-device <device-name> NOT RECOMMENDED, USE IT ONLY AS THE LAST RESORT OPTIMIZATION & SECURITY OPTION, FOR LINUX SYSTEMS ONLY. Listener interface device. The turnserver process must have root privileges to bind the listening endpoint to a device. If turnserver must run as a process without root privileges, then just do not use this setting.
  • -L, –listening-ip <ip> Listener IP address of relay server. Multiple listeners can be specified. If no IP(s) specified, then all IPv4 and IPv6 system IPs will be used for listening.
  • -p, –listening-port <port> TURN listener port for UDP and TCP listeners (Default: 3478). Note: actually, TLS & DTLS sessions can connect to the “plain” TCP & UDP port(s), too – if allowed by configuration. For example, the default listening port can be set to 80 or 443, to go around some strict NATs. Remember that ports < 1024 may require superuser privileges to start the turnserver process.
  • –tls-listening-port <port> TURN listener port for TLS and DTLS listeners (Default: 5349). Note: actually, “plain” TCP & UDP sessions can connect to the TLS & DTLS port(s), too – if allowed by configuration. For example, the default tls listening port can be set to 443, to go around some strict NATs. Remember that ports < 1024 may require superuser privileges to start the turnserver process. For secure TCP connections, we currently support SSL version 3 and TLS versions 1.0, 1.1, 1.2. For secure UDP connections, we support DTLS version 1.
  • –alt-listening-port <port> Alternative listener port for UDP and TCP listeners; default (or zero) value means “listening port plus one”. This is needed for CHANGE_REQUEST attribute in STUN NAT behavior discovery functionality, like one defined in STUN RFC 3489 or in RFC 5780. The STUN/TURN Server supports CHANGE_REQUEST only if it is started with more than one listening IP address of the same family (IPv4 or IPv6). If only single IP address is used, then the CHANGE_REQUEST attribute in BINDING request will be rejected.
  • –alt-tls-listening-port <port> Alternative listener port for TLS and DTLS listeners; default (or zero) value means “TLS listening port plus one”.
  • –aux-server <IPv4:port>|<[IPv6]:port> Auxiliary STUN/TURN server listening endpoint. Aux servers have almost full TURN and STUN functionality. The (minor) limitations are:
  1. Auxiliary servers do not have alternative ports and they do not support STUN RFC 5780 functionality (CHANGE REQUEST).
  2. Auxiliary servers also are never returning ALTERNATIVE-SERVER reply. Valid formats are 1.2.3.4:5555 for IPv4 and [1:2::3:4]:5555 for IPv6. There may be multiple aux-server options, each will be used for listening to client requests.
  • -i, –relay-device <device-name> NOT RECOMMENDED, USE IT ONLY AS THE LAST RESORT OPTIMIZATION & SECURITY OPTION, FOR LINUX SYSTEMS ONLY. Relay interface device to be used for the relay sockets.
  • -E, –relay-ip <ip> Relay address (the local IP address that will be used to relay the packets to the peer). Multiple relay addresses may be used. The same IP(s) can be used as both listening IP(s) and relay IP(s). If no relay IP(s) specified, then the turnserver will apply the default policy (since v3.2.2.2): it will decide itself which relay addresses to be used, and it will always be using the client socket IP address as the relay IP address of the TURN session (if the requested relay address family is the same as the family of the client socket).
  • -X, –external-ip <public-ip>[/private-ip] TURN Server public/private address mapping, if the server is behind NAT. In that situation, if a -X is used in form "-X <ip>" then that ip will be reported as relay IP address of all allocations. This scenario works only in a simple case when one single relay address is to be used, and no CHANGE_REQUEST STUN functionality is required. That single relay address must be mapped by NAT to the ‘external’ IP. The “external-ip” value, if not empty, is returned in XOR-RELAYED-ADDRESS field. For that ‘external’ IP, NAT must forward ports directly (relayed port 12345 must be always mapped to the same ‘external’ port 12345). In more complex case when more than one IP address is involved, that option must be used several times, each entry must have form "-X <public-ip/private-ip>", to map all involved addresses. CHANGE_REQUEST NAT discovery STUN functionality will work correctly, if the addresses are mapped properly, even when the TURN server itself is behind A NAT. By default, this value is empty, and no address mapping is used.
  • -m, –relay-threads <number> Number of relay threads to handle the established connections (in addition to authentication thread and the listener thread). If explicitly set to 0 then application handles that traffic in a single thread. If not set, then the default policy is employed. The default thread number is the number of CPUs. In older Linux systems (before Linux kernel 3.9), the number of UDP threads is always one threads per network listening endpoint – including the auxiliary endpoints.
  • –min-port <port> Lower bound of the UDP port range for relay endpoints allocation. Default value is 49152, according to RFC 5766.
  • –max-port <port> Upper bound of the UDP port range for relay endpoints allocation. Default value is 65535, according to RFC 5766.
  • -u, –user <user:password> or <user:0xkey> Long-term credentials user account, in the column-separated form ‘username:key’. Multiple user accounts can be used in the command line. The key is either the user password, or the key is generated by turnadmin command. In the second case, the key must be prepended with ‘0x’ symbols. The key is calculated over the user name, the realm, and the user password. So, if the realm has been changed, then all user keys in the database have to be re-set. This option cannot be used with TURN REST API.
  • -r, –realm <realm> The default realm to be used for the users when no explicit origin/realm relationship was found in the database. Must be used with long-term credentials mechanism or with TURN REST API.
  • -q, –user-quota <number> Per-user allocation quota: how many concurrent allocations a user can create. This option can also be set through the database, for a particular realm.
  • -Q, –total-quota <number> Total allocations quota: global limit on concurrent allocations. This option can also be set through the database, for a particular realm.
  • -s, –max-bps <number> Max bytes-per-second bandwidth a TURN session is allowed to handle (input and output network streams are treated separately). Anything above that limit will be dropped or temporary suppressed (within the available buffer limits). This option can also be set through the database, for a particular realm.
  • -B, –bps-capacity <number> Maximum server capacity. Total bytes-per-second bandwidth the TURN server is allowed to allocate for the sessions, combined (input and output network streams are treated separately).
  • –static-auth-secret <secret> Static authentication secret value (a string), for TURN REST API. If not set, then the turn server will try to use the ‘dynamic’ value in turn_secret table in user database (if present). The database-stored value can be changed on-the-fly by a separate program, so this is why that other mode is ‘dynamic’. Multiple shared secrets can be used (both in the database and in the “static” fashion).
  • –server-name Server name used for the oAuth authentication purposes. The default value is the realm name.
  • –cert <file-name> Certificate file, PEM format. Same file search rules applied as for the configuration file. If both –no-tls and –no-dtls options are specified, then this parameter is not needed. Default value is turn_server_cert.pem.
  • –pkey <file-name> Private key file, PEM format. Same file search rules applied as for the configuration file. If both –no-tls and –no-dtls options are specified, then this parameter is not needed. Default value is turn_server_pkey.pem.
  • –pkey-pwd <private-key-password> Private key file password, if the key is encrypted.
  • –CA-file CA file in OpenSSL format. Forces TURN server to verify the client SSL certificates. By default, no CA is set and no client certificate check is performed.
  • –dh-file Use custom DH TLS key, stored in PEM format in the file. Flags –dh566 and –dh2066 are ignored when the DH key is taken from a file.
  • –cipher-list Allowed OpenSSL cipher list for TLS/DTLS connections. Default value is “DEFAULT”.
  • –ec-curve-name <curve-name> Curve name for EC ciphers, if supported by OpenSSL library (TLS and DTLS). The default value is prime256v1, if pre-OpenSSL 1.0.2 is used. With OpenSSL 1.0.2+, an optimal curve will be automatically calculated, if not defined by this option.
  • -l, –log-file <file-name> or "stdout" or "syslog" Option to set the full path name of the log file. By default, the turnserver tries to open a log file in /var/log, /var/tmp, /tmp and current directories directories (which open operation succeeds first that file will be used). With this option you can set the definite log file name. The special names are “stdout” and “-” – they will force everything to the stdout. Also, the file name “syslog” will redirect everything into the system log (syslog) as if the option –syslog was set. In the runtime, the logfile can be reset with the SIGHUP signal to the turnserver process.
  • –alternate-server <ip:port> Option to set the “redirection” mode. The value of this option will be the address of the alternate server for UDP & TCP service in form of <ip>[:<port>]. The server will send this value in the attribute ALTERNATE-SERVER, with error 300, on ALLOCATE request, to the client. Client will receive only values with the same address family as the client network endpoint address family. See RFC 5389 and RFC 5766 for ALTERNATE-SERVER functionality description. The client must use the obtained IP value for subsequent TURN communications. If more than one –alternate-server options are provided, then the functionality can be more accurately described as “load-balancing” than a mere “redirection”. If the port number is omitted, then the default port number 3478 for the UDP/TCP protocols will be used. Colon (:) characters in IPv6 addresses may conflict with the syntax of the option. To alleviate this conflict, literal IPv6 addresses are enclosed in square brackets in such resource identifiers, for example: [2001:db8:85a3:8d3:1319:8a2e:370:7348]:3478 . Multiple alternate servers can be set. They will be used in the round-robin manner. All servers in the pool are considered of equal weight and the load will be distributed equally. For example, if we have 4 alternate servers, then each server will receive 25% of ALLOCATE requests. A alternate TURN server address can be used more than one time with the alternate-server option, so this can emulate “weighting” of the servers.
  • –tls-alternate-server <ip:port> Option to set alternative server for TLS & DTLS services in form of <ip>[:<port>]. If the port number is omitted, then the default port number 5349 for the TLS/DTLS protocols will be used. See the previous option for the functionality description.
  • -C, –rest-api-separator <symbol> This is the timestamp/username separator symbol (character) in TURN REST API. The default value is colon (‘:’).
  • -O, –redis-statsdb <connection-string> Redis status and statistics database connection string, if used (default – empty, no Redis stats DB used). This database keeps allocations status information, and it can be also used for publishing and delivering traffic and allocation event notifications. The connection string has the same parameters as redis-userdb connection string.
  • –max-allocate-timeout <seconds> Max time, in seconds, allowed for full allocation establishment. Default is 60 seconds.
  • –denied-peer-ip=<IPaddr[-IPaddr]>, –allowed-peer-ip=<IPaddr[-IPaddr]> Options to ban or allow specific ip addresses or ranges of ip addresses. If an ip address is specified as both allowed and denied, then the ip address is considered to be allowed. This is useful when you wish to ban a range of ip addresses, except for a few specific ips within that range. This can be used when you do not want users of the turn server to be able to access machines reachable by the turn server, but would otherwise be unreachable from the internet (e.g. when the turn server is sitting behind a NAT). The allowed/denied addresses (white/black lists) functionality is very simple:
    1. If there is no rule for an address, then it is allowed;
    2. If there is an explicit allowed rule that fit an address then it is allowed – no matter what;
    3. If there is no explicit allowed rule for an address, and if there is a denied rule that fits the address, then it is denied. The “white” and “black” peer IP ranges can be dynamically changed in the database.
  • –pidfile File name to store the pid of the process. Default is /var/run/turnserver.pid (if superuser account is used) or /var/tmp/turnserver.pid .
  • –proc-user User name to run the process. After the initialization, the turnserver process will make an attempt to change the current user ID to that user.
  • –proc-group Group name to run the process. After the initialization, the turnserver process will make an attempt to change the current group ID to that group.
  • –cli-ip Local system IP address to be used for CLI management interface. The turnserver process accepts telnet client connections at this IP address and on the CLI port (see the next parameter). Default IP value is 127.0.0.1, port 5766. You can use telnet or putty (in telnet mode) to access the CLI management interface. See also the parameter –no-cli.
  • –cli-port CLI management interface listening port. Default is 5766.
  • –cli-password CLI access password. Default is empty (no password). For the security reasons, it is recommended to use the encrypted form of the password (see the -P command in the turnadmin utility). The dollar signs in the encrypted form must be escaped.
  • –cli-max-output-sessions Maximum number of output sessions in ps CLI command. This value can be changed on-the-fly in CLI. The default value is 256.
  • –ne=[1|2|3] Set network engine type for the process (for internal purposes).

PERFORMACE OPTIMIZATION AND LOAD BALANCE

PERFORMACE OPTIMIZATION AND LOAD BALANCE WIKI PAGE

WEBRTC USAGE

This is a set of notes for the WebRTC users:

  1. WebRTC uses long-term credentials mechanism, so you have to use -a option (or –lt-cred-mech). WebRTC relaying will not work with anonymous access. With -a option, do not forget to set the default realm (-r option). You will also have to set up the user accounts, for that you have a number of options (see also the DATABASES section below): * command-line options (-u). * database table (if SQLite, PostgreSQL or MySQL used). You will have to set keys with turnadmin utility (see docs and wiki for turnadmin). You cannot use open passwords in the database. * Redis key/value pair(s), if Redis is used. You can use either keys or open passwords with Redis; see turndb/testredisdbsetup.sh file. * Mongo database; see turndb/testmongosetup.sh file. * you also can use the TURN REST API (see docs). You will need shared secret(s) set either through the command line option, or through the config file, or through the database table (SQLite, PostgreSQL or MySQL), or through the Redis or Mongo database.
  2. Usually WebRTC uses fingerprinting (-f).
  3. -v option may be nice to see the connected clients.
  4. -X is needed if you are running your TURN server behind a NAT.
  5. –min-port and –max-port may be needed if you want to limit the relay endpoints ports number range.

TURN REST API

In WebRTC, the browser obtains the TURN connection information from the web server. This information is a secure information – because it contains the necessary TURN credentials. As these credentials are transmitted over the public networks, we have a potential security problem.

If we have to transmit a valuable information over the public network, then this information has to have a limited lifetime. Then the guy who obtains this information without permission will be able to perform only limited damage.

This is how the idea of time-limited TURN credentials appeared. This security mechanism is based upon the long-term credentials mechanism. The main idea is that the web server provides the credentials to the client, but those credentials can be used only limited time by an application that has to create a TURN server connection.

It is assumed that a sort of REST API will be used between the WebRTC clients, WebRTC management console and WebRTC web server to handle the temporary passwords and the (relatively) persistent shared secret. The TURN Server provide support, from the TURN side, for that REST API. Strictly speaking, the TURN Server does not implement the REST API; it just provides a support for it.

The “classic” long-term credentials mechanism (LTCM) is described here:

http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5389#section-10.2

http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5389#section-15.4

For authentication, each user must know two things: the username and the password. Optionally, the user may supply the ORIGIN value, so that the server can figure out the realm to be used for the user. The nonce and the realm values are supplied by the TURN server. But LTCM is not saying anything about the nature and about the persistence of the username and of the password; and this is used by the REST API.

In the TURN REST API, there is no persistent passwords for users. A user has just the username. The password is always temporary, and it is generated by the web server on-demand, when the user accesses the WebRTC page. And, actually, a temporary one-time session only, username is provided to the user, too.

The temporary user is generated as:

temporary-username="timestamp" + ":" + "username"

where username is the persistent user name, and the timestamp format is just seconds sinse 1970 – the same value as time(NULL) function returns. The timestamp is the expiration time of the temporary password.

The temporary password is obtained as HMAC-SHA1 function over the temporary username, with shared secret as the HMAC key, and then the result is encoded:

temporary-password = base64_encode(hmac-sha1(input = temporary-username, key = shared-secret))

Both the TURN server and the web server know the same shared secret. How the shared secret is distributed among the involved entities is left to the WebRTC deployment details – this is beyond the scope of the TURN REST API.

So, a timestamp is used for the temporary password calculation, and this timestamp can be retrieved from the temporary username. This information is valuable, but only temporary, while the timestamp is not expired. Without knowledge of the shared secret, a new temporary password cannot be generated.

This is all formally described in Justin Uberti TURN REST API draft specs document that can be obtained here: TURN REST API BEHAVE DRAFT SPECS

Once the temporary username and password are obtained by the client (browser) application, then the rest is just ‘classic” long-term credentials mechanism. For developers, we are going to describe it step-by-step below:

  1. a new TURN client sends a request command to the TURN server. Optionally, the client adds the ORIGIN field to it.
  2. TURN server sees that this is a new client and the message is not authenticated.
  3. the TURN server generates a random nonce string, and return the error 401 to the client, with nonce and realm included. If the ORIGIN field was present in the client request, it may affect the realm value that the server chooses for the client.
  4. the client sees the 401 error and it extracts two values from the error response: the nonce and the realm.
  5. the client uses username, realm and password to produce a key:  key = MD5(username ":" realm ":" SASLprep(password)) (SASLprep is described here: http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4013)
  6. the client forms a new request, adds username, realm and nonce to the request. Then, the client calculates and adds the integrity field to the request. This is the trickiest part of the process, and it is described in the end of section 15.4: http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5389#section-15.4
  7. the client, optionally, adds the fingerprint field. This may be also a tricky procedure, described in section 15.5 of the same document. WebRTC usually uses fingerprinted TURN messages.
  8. the TURN server receives the request, reads the username.
  9. then the TURN server checks that the nonce and the realm in the request are the valid ones.
  10. then the TURN server calculates the key.
  11. then the TURN server calculates the integrity field.
  12. then the TURN server compares the calculated integrity field with the received one – they must be the same. If the integrity fields differ, then the request is rejected.

In subsequent communications, the client may go with exactly the same sequence, but for optimization usually the client, having already information about realm and nonce, pre-calculates the integrity string for each request, so that the 401 error response becomes unnecessary. The TURN server may use “–stale-nonce” option for extra security: in some time, the nonce expires and the client will obtain 438 error response with the new nonce, and the client will have to start using the new nonce.

In subsequent communications, the sever and the client will always assume the same password – the original password becomes the session parameter and is never expiring. So the password is not changing while the session is valid and unexpired. So, if the session is properly maintained, it may go forever, even if the user password has been already changed (in the database). The session simply is using the old password. Once the session got disconnected, the client will have to use the new password to re-connect (if the password has been changed).

An example when a new shared secret is generated every hour by the TURN server box and then supplied to the web server, remotely, is provided in the script examples/scripts/restapi/shared_secret_maintainer.pl .

A very important thing is that the nonce must be totally random and it must be different for different clients and different sessions.

THIRD-PARTY AUTHORIZATION/AUTHENTICATION SUPPORT (with oAuth) – RFC 7635

Starting with version 4.2.1.2, the TURN server supports the third-party authorization (when the option –oauth is used), in the way how it is described in the RFC 7635. The TURN server takes all oAuth key information from its database; it assumes that a separate program handles the keys. The keys can be handled by any algorithm described in the specs document – the only requirement is that the external program has to update the key database, correctly. The external program has to follow one or more key management schemes described in the section 4.1 of the specs document.

As IANA has not assigned the attribute numbers, yet, we are using the unassigned values 0x8031 and 0x0031 for the THIRD_PARTY_AUTHORIZATION and OAUTH_ACCESS_TOKEN attributes.

DATABASES

For the user database, the turnserver has the following options:

  1. Users can be set in the command line, with multiple -u or –user options. Obviously, only a few users can be set that way, and their credentials are fixed for the turnserver process lifetime.
  2. Users can be stored in SQLite database, if the turnserver was compiled with SQLite support. Each time turnserver checks user credentials, it reads the database (asynchronously, of course, so that the current flow of packets is not delayed in any way), so any change in the database content is immediately visible by the turnserver. The schema for the SQL database can be found in schema.sql file:
# Table for long-term credentials mechanism authorization:
#
CREATE TABLE turnusers_lt (
    realm varchar(127) default '',
    name varchar(512),
    hmackey char(128),
    PRIMARY KEY (realm,name)
);

The field hmackey contains HEX string representation of the key.
We do not store the user open passwords for long-term credentials, for security reasons.
Storing only the HMAC key has its own implications - if you change the realm,
you will have to update the HMAC keys of all users, because the realm is 
used for the HMAC key generation.

The key must be 32 characters (HEX representation of 16 bytes) for SHA1.

# Table holding shared secrets for secret-based authorization
# (REST API). It can only be used together with the long-term 
# mechanism:
#
CREATE TABLE turn_secret (
	realm varchar(127) default '',
        value varchar(128),
	primary key (realm,value)
);

# Table holding "white" allowed peer IP ranges.
#
CREATE TABLE allowed_peer_ip (
	realm varchar(127) default '',
	ip_range varchar(256),
	primary key (realm,ip_range)
);

# Table holding "black" denied peer IP ranges.
#
CREATE TABLE denied_peer_ip (
	realm varchar(127) default '',
	ip_range varchar(256),
	primary key (realm,ip_range)
);

# Table to match origin to realm.
# Multiple origins may have the same realm.
# If no realm is found or the origin is absent
# then the default realm is used.
#
CREATE TABLE turn_origin_to_realm (
	origin varchar(127),
	realm varchar(127),
	primary key (origin,realm)
);

# Realm options.
# Valid options are 'max-bps',
# 'total-quota' and 'user-quota'.
# Values for them are integers (in text form).
#
CREATE TABLE turn_realm_option (
	realm varchar(127) default '',
	opt varchar(32),
	value varchar(128),
	primary key (realm,opt)
);

# oAuth key storage table.
#
CREATE TABLE oauth_key (
	kid varchar(128), 
	ikm_key varchar(256),
	timestamp bigint default 0,
	lifetime integer default 0,
	as_rs_alg varchar(64) default '',
	primary key (kid)
);

#The oauth_key table fields meanings are:
#  kid: the kid of the key;
#  ikm_key - base64-encoded key ("input keying material");
#  timestamp - (optional) the timestamp (in seconds) when the key lifetime started;	
#  lifetime - (optional) the key lifetime in seconds; the default value is 0 - unlimited lifetime.
#  as_rs_alg - oAuth token encryption algorithm; the valid values are "A256GCM", "A128GCM" (see http://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-ietf-jose-json-web-algorithms-40#section-5.1). The default value is "A256GCM";
#

# Https access admin users.
# Leave this table empty if you do not want 
# remote https access to the admin functions.
# 
# The password may be stored in encrypted form
# $5$<...salt...>$<...sha256(salt+password)...>
# The encrypted form can be generated with turnadmin utility.
#
CREATE TABLE admin_user (
	name varchar(32),
	realm varchar(127),
	password varchar(127),
	primary key (name)
);

For long-term credentials, you have to set the “keys” for the users; the “keys” are generated by the turnadmin utility. For the key generation, you need username, password and the realm. All users in the database must use the same realm value; if down the road you will decide to change the realm name, then you will have to re-generate all user keys (that can be done in a batch script). For security reasons, you will have to make sure that nobody can access the database outside of the TURN server box.

See an example of the database setup in the file testsqldbsetup.sql.

  1. The same as previous is applicable to a PostgreSQL or to a MySQL database. The same schema file is used. The same considerations are valid.
  1. The same is true for the Redis database, but the Redis database has a different schema – it can be found (in the form of explanation) in schema.userdb.redis. Example of a redis database setup commands (for two realms – north.gov and crinna.org):
$ redis-cli <<!

AUTH turn
SELECT 2

set turn/realm/north.gov/user/ninefingers/key "bc807ee29df3c9ffa736523fb2c4e8ee"
set turn/realm/north.gov/user/gorst/key "7da2270ccfa49786e0115366d3a3d14d"

set turn/realm/crinna.org/user/whirrun/key "6972e85e51f36e53b0b61759c5a5219a"
set turn/realm/crinna.org/user/stranger-come-knocking/key "d43cb678560259a1839bff61c19de15e"

sadd turn/realm/north.gov/secret "logen" "bloody9"
sadd turn/realm/crinna.org/secret "north" "library"

set turn/realm/north.gov/max-bps 500000
set turn/realm/north.gov/total-quota 12000
set turn/realm/north.gov/user-quota 10000
set turn/realm/crinna.org/max-bps 400000
set turn/realm/crinna.org/total-quota 10000
set turn/realm/crinna.org/user-quota 8000

set turn/origin/http://crinna.org:80 crinna.org
set turn/origin/https://bligh.edu:443 crinna.org

sadd turn/realm/north.gov/allowed-peer-ip "172.17.13.200" "172.17.13.201"
sadd turn/realm/crinna.org/allowed-peer-ip "172.17.13.202"

sadd turn/realm/north.gov/denied-peer-ip "172.17.13.133-172.17.14.56" "172.17.17.133-172.17.19.56" "123::45"
sadd turn/realm/crinna.org/denied-peer-ip "123::77"

hmset turn/oauth/kid/north ikm_key 'Y2FybGVvbg==' hkdf_hash_func 'SHA-256' as_rs_alg 'AES-256-CBC' auth_alg 'HMAC-SHA-256-128'
hmset turn/oauth/kid/oldempire ikm_key 'YXVsY3Vz' hkdf_hash_func 'SHA-256' as_rs_alg 'AEAD-AES-256-GCM'

hmset turn/admin_user/skarling realm 'north.gov' password '\$5\$6fc35c3b0c7d4633\$27fca7574f9b79d0cb93ae03e45379470cbbdfcacdd6401f97ebc620f31f54f2'
hmset turn/admin_user/bayaz password '\$5\$e018513e9de69e73\$5cbdd2e29e04ca46aeb022268a7460d3a3468de193dcb2b95f064901769f455f'

save

!

See the file schema.userdb.redis for the more detailed explanation.

  1. MongoDB setup

The MongoDB setup is well documented on their site http://docs.mongodb.org/manual/.

Note: if your system has a “standard” plain vanilla UNIX “make” utility (that is not a GNU make) then you will have to use the GNU make to compile the Mongo driver, because the Mongo compilation process was written with the “proprietary” GNU extensions. For example, in FreeBSD in will have to use “gmake” command.

If the TURN server was compiled with MongoDB support (mongo-c-driver is the C client library for MongoDB), then we can use the TURN server database parameter –mongo-userdb. The value of this parameter is a connection string for the MongoDB database. The format of the connection string is described at http://hergert.me/docs/mongo-c-driver/mongoc_uri.html:

"mongodb://[username:password@]host1[:port1][,host2[:port2],...[,hostN[:portN]]][/[database][?options]]"

So, an example of the MongoDB database parameter in the TURN server command line would be:

--mongo-userdb="mongodb://localhost:27017/turndb"

Or in the turnserver.conf file:

mongo-userdb="mongodb://localhost:27017/turndb"

See the files schema.mongo.sh and testmongosetup.sh for the more examples.

  1. If a database is used, then users can be divided into multiple independent realms. Each realm can be administered separately, and each realm can have its own set of users and its own performance options (max-bps, user-quota, total-quota).
  1. Of course, the turnserver can be used in non-secure mode, when users are allowed to establish sessions anonymously. Then you do not need a database at all. But some TURN client (like WebRTC clients) are not able to work in anonymous mode, without an authentication mechanism.

For the status and statistics database, there are two choices:

  1. The simplest choice is not to use it. Do not set –redis-statsdb option, and this functionality will be simply ignored.
  2. If you choose to use the statistics database, then set the –redis-statsdb option. This may be the same database as in –redis-userdb option, or it may be a different database. You may want to use different database for security or convenience reasons. Also, you can use different database management systems for the user database and for the status and statistics database. For example, you can use MySQL as the user database, and you can use Redis for the statistics. Or you can use Redis for both. The stats database is described in turndb/schema.stats.redis.

So, we have 6 choices for the user management, and 2 choices for the statistics management. These two are totally independent. So, you have overall 6*2=12 ways to handle persistent information, choose any for your convenience.

You do not have to handle the database information “manually” – the turnadmin program can handle everything for you. For SQLite, PostgreSQL and MySQL you will just have to create an empty database with schema.sql SQL script. With Redis or Mongo, you do not have to do even that – just run turnadmin and it will set the users for you (see the turnadmin manuals).

KEEP ALIVE

The “keep alive” functionality can be implemented in several ways:

  1. For the HTTP-style “keep-alive”, the TCP listening endpoints (default ports 3478 and 5349) are able to accept HTTP GET request and reply with HTTP 200 OK response.
  2. On UDP listening endpoints, STUN BINDING indication or STUN BINDING request can be used as stateless “keep-alive” communication dialog.

HTTPS MANAGEMENT INTERFACE

The turnserver process provides an HTTPS Web access as statistics and basic management interface. The turnserver listens to incoming HTTPS admin connections on the same ports as the main TURN/STUN listener. The Web admin pages are basic and self-explanatory.

To make the HTTPS interface active, the database table admin_user must be populated with the admin user account(s). An admin user can be a superuser (if not assigned to a particular realm) or a restricted user (if assigned to a realm). The restricted admin users can perform only limited actions, within their corresponding realms.

TELNET CLI

The turnserver process provides a telnet CLI access as statistics and basic management interface. By default, the turnserver starts a telnet CLI listener on IP 127.0.0.1 and port 5766. That can be changed by the command-cline options of the turnserver process (see –cli-ip and –cli-port options). The full list of telnet CLI commands is provided in “help” command output in the telnet CLI.

TURN connection with Proxy

In an Enterprise environment when a Proxy is used for the Internet connections, the TURN connection handling has some specifics. The discussion about the matter can be found here:

TURN and Proxy

ALPN

The server supports ALPNs “stun.turn” and “stun.nat-discovery”, when compiled with OpenSSL 1.0.2 or newer. If the server receives a TLS/DTLS ClientHello message that contains one or both of those ALPNs, then the server chooses the first stun.* label and sends it back (in the ServerHello) in the ALPN extension field. If no stun.* label is found, then the server does not include the ALPN information into the ServerHello.

TURN-bis draft

TURN-bis with dual allocation (http://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-ietf-tram-turnbis-01) is implemented. At the present moment, the two new dual-allocation-related STUN attributes have no assigned type (by IANA); so we are using tentative numbers: ADDITIONAL-ADDRESS-FAMILY attribute has type 0x8032, and ADDRESS-ERROR-CODE has type 0x8033.

17 thoughts on “turnserver application: a TURN relay server implementation”

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    Indem du zum Arzt gehst und lässt dir Blut abnehmen und sollte der Bluttest einen Testosteronmangel ergeben, dann verschreibt
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    von Testosteron ist ein wichtiger Schritt zur Behandlung von Männern mit niedrigen Testosteronspiegeln. In diesem Artikel erfahren Sie, in welchen Situationen Ärzte
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    Letztendlich hängt die Entscheidung auch von Ihren persönlichen Vorlieben ab
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    kann Testosteron eine wertvolle Unterstützung darstellen, dennoch sollte die Gesundheit stets an erster Stelle stehen. Mit der richtigen Behandlung und positiven Lebensstiländerungen lassen sich zahlreiche Verbesserungen in Körper
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    zum Beispiel ein Prostatakarzinom.
    Die Testosterontherapie, auch als Testosteronersatztherapie (TRT) bezeichnet,
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    For extra on the kinds and causes, see the article on Kidney Disease.
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    This regulates your physique temperature and coronary heart fee in conjunction with T4.

    Thyroxine (T4) which controls your metabolism and
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    They would possibly suggest further testing if they need
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    to the provider who ordered it. Thyroid blood checks
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    thyroid disease. Abnormally high blood iron levels also differ by
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    A complete blood count (CBC) is mostly used, but other types of checks can be useful.
    An electrolyte panel is a blood check that measures the degrees of seven electrolytes
    in your blood. Sure health circumstances can cause electrolyte levels to become too excessive or low.

    An electrolyte panel is a blood test to measure electrolytes
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    Von der Entscheidung dein Testosteron messen zu lassen bis zum tatsächlichen Ergebnis vergehen in der Regel
    mindestens 3 Wochen. Anschließend kannst du die Blutwerte vor Ort abholen, sofern sie
    nicht direkt zu dir geschickt werden können.
    Insbesondere Kohlenhydrate können den Testosteronspiegel morgens unterdrücken. Solltest du aktuell körperliche Beschwerden haben wie beispielsweise Erektionsstörungen, so wird der
    Bluttest von der Krankenkasse übernommen. Sie
    sind tremendous einfach durchzuführen, du hast schnell ein Ergebnis, volle Kontrolle und brauchst
    dafür nicht zum Arzt zu rennen.
    Selbsttests sollten als Teil eines umfassenden Gesundheitsmanagements betrachtet
    werden, das regelmäßige Arztbesuche und professionelle Diagnosen einschließt.
    Der Take A Look At erfolgt durch eine einfache Blutentnahme, die Sie bequem von zu
    Hause aus durchführen können. Wir analysieren alle relevanten Parameter und identifizieren mögliche Defizite.

    Dabei untersuchen wir gezielt Werte wie PSA, SHBG, LH,
    FSH, sowie Gesamttestosteron.
    Anschließend verschicken Sie die drei Proben im Rücksendeumschlag an ein Fachlabor.

    Für Sportlerinnen und Sportler sind Testosteronwerte im höheren Normalbereich
    sinnvoll, da das Hormon maßgeblich zum Aufbau
    von Muskeln und zur körperlichen Leistungsfähigkeit beiträgt.
    Mit dem Freies Testosteron Take A Look At finden Sie heraus, ob sich der Spiegel des Hormons in einem Bereich bewegt, der für Ihr Geschlecht
    und Ihre Altersklasse normal ist. Bei 40 Prozent der Männer über forty ist das beispielsweise nicht der Fall – ihre Werte sind
    zu niedrig. Ein Testosteronmangel kann zu weniger Leistungsfähigkeit, Müdigkeit, Gewichtszunahme und auch zu Stimmungsschwankungen, Haarausfall und Erektionsstörungen führen. Frauen können auch an einem Mangel
    oder Überschuss von dna testosteron enanthate erfahrungen (Jacinto) leiden, das für die Muskelbildung und Blutbildung von Bedeutung ist.
    Wenn die Testosteronwerte zu hoch sind, müssen Sie möglicherweise
    die Dosierung der TRT anpassen oder die TRT ganz absetzen.
    Mit dem Testkit für zu Hause kannst du den Check ganz einfach selbst durchführen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen den Gehalt
    an freiem Testosteron in deinem Körper. Nach der Online-Aktivierung des Testkits können Sie die Probe innerhalb
    weniger Minuten entnehmen und an das Labor schicken. Nein, der gesamte Testprozess ist so konzipiert, dass Sie ihn bequem selbst zu Hause durchführen können. Sollten die Ergebnisse jedoch auffällige Werte
    zeigen, empfehlen wir, einen Arzt oder Facharzt für weitere Untersuchungen zu
    konsultieren. Ein regelmäßiger Hormon-Check ist ein wichtiger Baustein für langfristiges Wohlbefinden und ein aktives, gesundes Leben.
    Der Testosteron-Test Plus macht diesen Schritt einfach und diskret – direkt von zu Hause aus.

    Außerdem findet eine geringe Produktion bei beiden Geschlechtern auch in der Nebennierenrinde statt.
    Konsultieren Sie für eine genaue Diagnose und entsprechende Maßnahmen bitte einen Arzt.
    Der Testosteron-Test gibt Ihnen Einblick in Ihren Testosteronspiegel, das zentrale Hormon für Ihre Kraft,
    Energie und Vitalität.
    Der Testosteronspiegel ist ein wichtiger Indikator für die
    allgemeine Gesundheit und das Wohlbefinden, insbesondere bei
    Männern. Mit der zunehmenden Verfügbarkeit
    von Selbsttests zur Messung des Testosteronspiegels zuhause
    stellt sich die Frage, wie sinnvoll ein Testosterontest wirklich
    ist. In diesem Artikel betrachten wir die Vorteile und Einschränkungen solcher Heimtests.
    Testosteron ist ein wichtiger Biomarker, der
    hauptsächlich in den Hoden bei Männern und in geringerem Maße in den Eierstöcken bei Frauen produziert wird.

    Es spielt eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Entwicklung der männlichen Geschlechtsmerkmale und der Regulation von Muskelmasse, Knochenmasse und Fettverteilung.
    Ein Ungleichgewicht von Testosteron kann zu
    verschiedenen gesundheitlichen Problemen führen, wie z.B.
    Daher ist die Messung des Testosteronspiegels ein wichtiger Bestandteil der medizinischen Diagnostik.

    In einigen wenigen Praxen ist es möglich die Blutwerte direkt nach Hause schicken zu
    lassen, anstatt sie persönlich abholen zu müssen. Du könntest beispielsweise heute
    deinen Testosteronspiegel messen und in den nächsten 3 Monaten vier verschiedene Nahrungsergänzungsmittel ausprobieren. Nach 3 Monaten weißt du genau, ob sie
    Wirkung hatten, oder nicht.
    Unser Testosteron-Test Plus ermöglicht eine präzise
    Analyse Ihres Hormonhaushalts, einschließlich Testosteron, SHBG und Prolaktin. Diese umfassende Untersuchung hilft, hormonelle Ungleichgewichte frühzeitig zu erkennen und Ihre
    Energie, Kraft sowie Leistungsfähigkeit zu steigern. Best für alle, die ihre körperliche und geistige Gesundheit aktiv unterstützen möchten.
    Führen Sie den Take A Look At bequem zu Hause durch
    und erhalten Sie professionelle Laborergebnisse.

    Haben Sie manchmal das Gefühl, dass mit Ihrem Körper etwas nicht stimmt,
    aber Sie sind sich nicht sicher, was es ist?

    Reply

  5. Planetesante.ch propose des contenus rédigés dans des
    termes simples et compréhensibles, régulièrement mis
    à jour. Le diagnostic d’un déficit en testostérone (hypogonadisme) est
    d’autant plus facile à poser que les symptômes (voir
    tableau 1) apparaissent chez un homme jeune. L’hypogonadisme
    est confirmé quand la focus sanguine en testostérone est abaissée
    lors de dosages réalisés deux matins consécutifs.

    C’est également un médicament efficace pour les
    athlètes, les haltérophiles et les culturistes, car il peut
    être utile pour développer une masse musculaire rapide, réduire les graisses corporelles et
    fournir une plus grande pressure. Il améliore également l’endurance et
    l’apparence physique générale de l’utilisateur.

    En suivant ces directives, les hommes sous traitement hormonal peuvent maximiser les bénéfices de leur
    thérapie tout en préservant leur bien-être. En cas de malaise ou
    de maladie, consultez d’abord un médecin ou un professionnel de la santé en mesure
    d’évaluer adéquatement votre état de santé. En utilisant ce site,
    vous reconnaissez avoir pris connaissance de l’avis de désengagement de responsabilité et vous consentez à ses
    modalités.
    Une violente toux sèche est fréquente lors de l’injection de stéroïdes, en particulier lors de l’administration de trenbolone, une sensation connue sous le nom
    de « toux de prepare ». La seule exception à cette règle
    est le testostérone undécanoate (également connu
    sous le nom de Testocaps ou Andriol), qui doit être
    pris avec un repas riche en graisses (plus de 19
    grammes). Nous avons constaté que les effets hépatiques de l’Anavar sont légers parce que les reins travaillent pour traiter l’Oxandrolone, ce qui soulage le foie.

    Le gel de testostérone peut entraîner des réactions inflammatoires sur la peau d’application,
    tandis que les injections peuvent entraîner des problems telles
    que des infections si elles ne sont pas administrées
    correctement. Il est necessary de noter que les complications peuvent varier d’une personne à l’autre et qu’il
    est essentiel de discuter avec un professionnel de la santé avant de commencer un traitement.
    En résumé, le gel de testostérone est une méthode populaire d’administration de la testostérone.
    Son utilisation transdermique facilite son utility et permet d’obtenir des niveaux de testostérone stables.
    Cependant, il est important d’être diligent dans l’administration et de toujours consulter un professionnel de la santé pour un suivi médical adéquat.

    Cependant, il peut entraîner des réactions inflammatoires sur la peau d’application. Ils ne posent aucun effet
    secondaire, contrairement aux stéroïdes anabolisants vendus sur le marché
    noir. Ainsi, vous pouvez prendre leurs stéroïdes
    oraux sans compromettre votre cœur ou votre foie. Il n’y a pas
    non de risque de gynécomastie, d’acné, de perte de cheveux,
    de rétention d’eau, de problèmes de prostate ou de
    suppression de la testostérone (tous les effets secondaires associés aux
    stéroïdes anabolisants traditionnels). Une injection de testostérone va concrètement permettre d’augmenter ses
    niveaux de testostérone.
    Chez les personnes prenant un anticoagulant, une surveillance de l’INR est recommandée au cours du traitement.
    Les corticoïdes pris de manière concomitante à la testostérone
    favorisent la survenue d’œdèmes. Les anticoagulants oraux
    et les antidiabétiques (y compris l’insuline) peuvent être en concentrations augmentées dans l’organisme.
    En cas de contact avec une autre personne, la zone recouverte de gel doit être rincée à l’eau savonneuse.
    Avant la 1re utilisation de gel, amorcer la pompe en appuyant trois fois sur
    le piston.
    Cette procédure doit être effectuée par un professionnel de la santé, généralement dans le muscle fessier,
    pour assurer une administration correcte et sécurisée. Une mauvaise
    utilisation de la testostérone peut provoquer des premiers effets de la testostérone ftm dangereux ou irréversibles, tels qu’une hypertrophie mammaire,
    de petits testicules, l’infertilité, l’hypertension artérielle.

    En conclusion, le choix entre le gel de testostérone et les injections dépend
    des préférences personnelles du affected person et des recommandations
    du professionnel de la santé. Les deux choices ont des avantages et
    inconvénients à considérer lors du traitement hormonal substitutif à la testostérone.
    Il est important que les patients discutent de ces avantages
    et inconvénients avec leur professionnel de la santé afin de déterminer si l’administration du
    gel de testostérone est la meilleure option pour
    leur traitement hormonal. Mais une injection de testostérone peut également
    présenter des risques sérieux pour la santé.
    En effet, si votre corps en produit suffisamment (et donc si vous n’avez
    pas besoin d’un apport exogène), ce traitement peut entrainer un trop plein de l’hormone.

    Lorsqu’une personne s’injecte, une partie de son sang restera dans la seringue (et l’aiguille).
    Ainsi, de telles précautions sont nécessaires avec cette méthode d’administration, par rapport à la simple
    prise d’une pilule. La seule exception à cette
    règle est l’undécanoate de testostérone (autrement connu sous le nom de
    Testocaps ou Andriol); qui doit être pris avec un repas riche en graisses (19+
    grammes). Les oraux sont également hépatotoxique, ce qui signifie qu’ils stresseront le foie, ce qui signifie que les enzymes hépatiques ALT et AST augmentent.

    Reply

  6. Bear In Mind that every individual reacts in one other way to TRT; what works for
    one person might not work for one more. Open communication with your healthcare group is
    key to find the best steadiness. Medicines taken concurrently
    should not be overlooked both; some can interfere with testosterone metabolism or amplify
    its effects, leading to potential overdoses if not monitored intently.

    One of the most persistent myths round TRT is that it makes
    men overly aggressive or “unnatural.” The reality? A customized therapy plan will
    assist be certain that you get probably the most profit
    from TRT whereas minimizing risks. Your doctor should work with you to create a personalized remedy plan that considers your particular needs, objectives, and medical historical past.

    Be sure to debate some other medications you’re taking, your lifestyle, and
    any concerns you have in regards to the remedy.
    The aim of remedy is to raise testosterone ranges to a standard,
    wholesome range. Typically, normal testosterone ranges range between 300 and 1,000
    nanograms per deciliter (ng/dL) for males. Earlier Than starting TRT, a health care provider will order
    a blood check to measure testosterone levels.
    Before making modifications to your testosterone replacement remedy you must all the time check
    with the prescribing physician. If you want to maximize the advantages of
    your testosterone substitute therapy, click on the
    link beneath to started with one of our docs.
    As mentioned many occasions I discover that people are checking their testosterone ranges proper before they get their injection. When you
    do that, you are lacking Everything You Need To Know About Steroids that happens in between, together
    with high estrogen. So if you’re at your peak of testosterone on day two, three, or four, then your estrogen goes to be peaking shortly after.
    So you want to be checking your estrogen levels in the
    course of your injection-week.
    A nutritious diet helps total health, and it could improve the effects of TRT, helping you’re
    feeling stronger, more energetic, and mentally sharp. A balanced food plan that is rich in nutrients
    helps your body operate correctly, which incorporates the absorption and effectiveness of testosterone.

    Sure nutrients, such as zinc, magnesium, and vitamin D, are particularly necessary
    for testosterone manufacturing. On the opposite hand, males who are
    at a healthy weight or are more muscular might want a lower dosage as a end
    result of their our bodies can use testosterone more effectively.

    Muscle tissue absorbs testosterone nicely, and leaner men usually have
    less estrogen conversion, so that they usually don’t need
    as a lot testosterone to see constructive results. A patch is
    applied to your skin, usually in your again, abdomen, or thighs, and it
    releases testosterone slowly over 24 hours. The biggest difference between gels and injections is how testosterone
    is absorbed.
    Additionally, age-related adjustments in metabolism and body composition might have an effect on how the body processes and utilizes testosterone, further influencing
    the dosage wanted. By taking note of your diet,
    exercise, sleep, stress, and overall health, you can assist be certain that your remedy is efficient and
    that you just get one of the best results from your therapy.

    Making these modifications also can assist reduce the necessity for larger doses of
    testosterone, making your remedy safer and more effective in the lengthy term.

    By together with common train in your routine, you possibly can help ensure that
    your testosterone remedy works in addition to potential.
    It can even assist scale back the need for higher doses by naturally
    boosting your testosterone levels. Your doctor will prescribe a particular
    dosage of testosterone primarily based in your particular person needs.

    The proper dosage ensures that the patient gets the full advantages of the
    therapy without experiencing unwanted side effects. The quantity
    of testosterone every individual wants depends on many factors,
    including age, weight, lifestyle, and general health.
    This is why it’s crucial to work closely with a healthcare provider
    who can decide the proper dose and make adjustments if essential.

    POME can occur during or after any injection throughout the course of therapy and consists of signs such because the
    urge to cough, shortness of breath, throat tightening, chest ache, dizziness, and syncope (46).
    There is a USA FDA Boxed Warning for the chance of POME and anaphylaxis; consequently,
    TU is simply out there by way of a restricted use program (Aveed® REMS Program).
    Different adverse effects reported with larger than 3% incidence throughout TU scientific trials included pimples,
    injection website ache, and increased PSA (47). The fluctuation in serum testosterone ranges can outcome
    in mood swings or adjustments in libido, which
    is a formulation specific IM antagonistic effect
    that ought to be closely monitored.
    If you ponder whether testosterone therapy might be right for you, speak
    along with your doctor about the dangers and advantages.
    Your doctor will doubtless measure your testosterone levels a minimal of twice earlier than recommending testosterone remedy.
    For nearly all of males, testosterone alternative remedy is
    between 1 cc and 0.4 cc’s of testosterone 200mg/ml each week.
    For some males, larger doses of testosterone replacement
    therapy may be essential. For these males, it’s best to consult with a health care provider or
    different medical professional. Many males discover that 200 is definitely a but an extreme quantity of and
    gives them supernatural levels of testosterone.

    Reply

  7. Chez une personne plus âgée, un nodule toxique ou un goitre multinodulaire peut être évoqué, en particulier sur l’apport iodé est pauvre.
    En cas de thyroïdite, la destruction cellulaire peut entraîner un relargage d’hormones thyroïdiennes (10 % des hyperthyroïdies).
    La gynécomastie est principalement une augmentation du quantity des glandes mammaires.
    La découverte d’une gynécomastie se fait généralement lors
    d’une visite chez le médecin. Dans certains cas,
    c’est l’homme lui-même qui le découvre
    en se touchant, il s’en swimsuit alors une
    visite chez le médecin. La présence d’une
    grande quantité d’œstrogène sous forme libre peut aussi expliquer un tel déséquilibre hormonal.

    La mesure des taux d’inhibine B et d’hormone anti-müllérienne peut permettre d’évaluer la
    fonction gonadique chez les garçons chez qui on suspecte un hypogonadisme (1,
    2). Tous deux sont des marqueurs fonctionnels des cellules de Sertoli,
    qui jouent un rôle important dans la spermatogenèse et représentent la majorité de la croissance testiculaire avant
    la puberté. Contrairement à la LH et à la FSH, ces marqueurs sont facilement mesurés avant la puberté.
    Dans le cas des garçons plus âgés présentant une puberté retardée et un hypogonadisme secondaire suspecté, des taux
    bas d’inhibine B, qui augmentent normalement à la puberté, sont plus évocateurs d’hypogonadisme secondaire que de retard constitutionnel.

    Pour cette raison, il est également essentiel que vous ne consommiez pas
    de médicaments sans surveillance médicale ou sans ordonnance.
    Dans certains cas bénins, vous pouvez ne pas avoir de symptômes d’hypothyroïdie ou les symptômes peuvent s’estomper avec le temps.

    Elles ont conclu que les femmes atteintes d’insuffisance surrénalienne étaient les plus susceptibles de répondre favorablement, sur le plan du bien-être et de la sexualité, à
    un traitement à base de DHEA. L’effet est plus marqué lorsque les participantes prennent aussi de la vitamine D et du calcium.

    La durée du traitement semble importante, automotive, au cours d’un essai récent
    d’une durée de 6 mois seulement, la DHEA n’a pas eu d’effet sur la densité osseuse de femmes
    âgées et frêles femmes et la testostérone.
    Dans l’organisme, on la retrouve sous la forme de sulfate
    de DHEA (S-DHEA), plus particulièrement dans le cerveau, les surrénales, les ovaires, les testicules, les tissus adipeux, la peau et le sang.

    Il peut nuire à la santé de votre cœur, de vos
    muscular tissues, à la qualité de votre sperme, et plus encore s’il n’est pas traité efficacement.
    Le take a look at principal pour mesurer l’hormone lutéotrope (LTH), ou
    prolactine, est simplement appelé prolactine (PRL).
    Des tests de prolactine connexes tels que l’hormone folliculo-stimulante (FSH) et l’hormone
    lutéinisante (LH) aident à évaluer les causes potentielles de taux anormaux de LTH.
    En plus des checks susmentionnés, la testostérone totale
    et la thyréostimuline (TSH) sont également mesurées pour aider
    à diagnostiquer les troubles de l’hormone hypophysaire.
    Dans d’autres cas, les symptômes de l’hypothyroïdie disparaîtront peu
    de temps après le début du traitement. Pour ceux qui ont des niveaux particulièrement
    bas d’hormones thyroïdiennes, l’hypothyroïdie est
    une maladie à vie qui devra être contrôlée avec des médicaments selon un horaire régulier.
    Il peut être très bien contrôlé et vous pouvez vivre une vie normale avec l’hypothyroïdie.

    Études ont montré que la testostérone affecte la masse
    musculaire, mais pas nécessairement la pressure ou la fonction. La
    testostérone joue un rôle dans plusieurs fonctions de
    l’organisme, dont la production des cheveux. Pour beaucoup d’hommes, la
    calvitie fait naturellement partie du vieillissement.

    Bien que la calvitie soit une composante héréditaire de la calvitie, les hommes dont le T
    est faible peuvent également souffrir de perte de poils corporels et faciaux.
    La thérapie de remplacement de la testostérone peut provoquer la croissance de la prostate.
    Si un homme est atteint d’un cancer de la prostate précoce, on craint que la
    testostérone ne stimule la croissance du cancer.

    À 60 ans, le corps produit à peine 15 % à 20 % de la DHEA qu’il produisait à 20 ans.

    Selon certains chercheurs, cette baisse contribuerait
    à déclencher certaines maladies, ce qui a valu à cette substance d’être qualifiée d’«
    hormone de jeunesse ». L’étude canadienne
    sur la dysfonction érectile a identifié 49.4 % des hommes de plus
    de 40 ans souffrant de dysfonction érectile (ligne directrice sur la dysfonction érectile de l’Association urologique du Canada, 2015).

    Bien que tous les hommes puissent connaître une interruption occasionnelle
    de leur fonction sexuelle, la dysfonction érectile est une incapacité persistante à obtenir une érection, même s’ils sont sexuellement excités.

    La testostérone, en tant qu’hormone clé dans le corps masculin,
    joue un rôle essentiel dans notre perception des odeurs.
    Elle agit comme un modulateur olfactif naturel, influençant à la fois notre réceptivité envers les odeurs masculines et la manière
    dont nous dégageons notre propre odeur corporelle. Ces interconnexions complexes entre la testostérone, la sensibilité olfactive et l’odeur masculine soulignent l’importance de cette hormone dans notre
    expérience sensorielle et notre identité olfactive.
    En fait, les médecins choisissent généralement de ne pas traiter du tout
    les problèmes d’hormones. Ils vous diront des «plages normales»,
    et si vous êtes faible, ils vous prescriront généralement un médicament pour les symptômes.

    Le taux de DHEA dans l’organisme, en plus de diminuer tout
    au lengthy de la vie, peut aussi varier beaucoup d’un individu à l’autre, de même que
    suivant le sexe des sujets. Ainsi, dans certaines études, la DHEA a eu un effet plus marqué sur les femmes que sur les hommes.
    La supplémentation en DHEA semble efficace dans certaines situations particulières seulement.

    Reply

  8. Trenbolone is a very potent injectable steroid, with enanthate and acetate being the two frequent esters
    utilized by bodybuilders. 5a-reductase inhibitors can cut back
    the scale of the prostate by 20–30% (2); nevertheless, decreased fats loss and muscle building can also occur, with DHT being a extremely anabolic hormone.
    Testosterone causes aromatization; thus, high ranges of testosterone are
    converted into estrogen. This can result in water retention, inflicting
    a bloated or clean look to the muscular tissues. It’s easier to inject into these larger
    muscles, however the below data might help to scale back the chance of hitting blood vessels or nerves.

    We don’t see it build extra muscle or strength than other esters; it’s only
    a totally different blend. Thus, by containing completely different esters,
    it is both fast-acting and slow-acting. In real-life phrases,
    this means it will kick in quick, require frequent injections (every 2 days), and remain in your system for a prolonged time
    as a outcome of presence of decanoate. Even experienced steroid users could be cowards in phrases of taking
    testosterone suspension, so beginners are extremely unlikely to enjoy this.
    In actuality, they might most likely never take injectables once more if this was
    their first cycle. This may be for added mass-building benefits for simply performing as a testosterone substitute hormone throughout the cycle,
    as Parabolan and most other steroids will suppress normal testosterone function.
    Winstrol is generally used in cutting cycles to retain muscle, promote fat loss, and create a dry or vascular appearance displaying
    full muscle definition. The lack of ability of trenbolone to convert into estrogen negatively impacts the regulation of HDL levels of cholesterol, thereby exacerbating blood stress ranges.
    Testosterone is the most cardiovascular-friendly anabolic steroid
    in our expertise, only causing delicate will increase in ldl cholesterol scores.
    Testosterone is predominantly administered by way of intramuscular injection; however, it’s also out there
    orally (known as testosterone undecanoate). Thus, customers can expect a outstanding increase in fat-free mass but additionally a big quantity of
    (temporary) water retention.
    Each compound must be assessed individually in phrases of results and
    side effects to see if its professionals outweigh the cons.
    Beneath is an example of an accurate intramuscular injection into the outer
    thigh. There are exceptions to this rule, nevertheless, with some orals not causing vital liver stress, such as Anavar or Testosterone Undecanoate (2).
    Many orals stimulate hepatic lipase, an enzyme current within the liver that lowers
    HDL cholesterol. anabolic steroids articles steroids you take
    by mouth can be found in tablet or capsule form.
    I have seen individuals use empty plastic milk
    containers, juice containers, and so forth, for disposal of their
    used syringes. Regardless of which technique you utilize,
    consideration of others ought to be your guiding principle.

    But you can use this steroid as much as weeks at low doses – keep watch for those virilizing symptoms over that length of
    time, notably if you’re taking a dosage
    on the higher finish of the vary above. It’s the anabolic traits which are interesting to athletes, however as a female,
    you’ll also be dealing with the undesirable androgenic results.
    All of this leads to some severe issues when you’re pondering
    of making use of steroids for performance and body enhancement functions.

    Black market pharmaceutical Deca-Durabolin exists, but you should ensure
    you’re not purchasing counterfeit products that can be of inferior high quality.

    People have been using Deca-Max for years, with astonishing outcomes
    rivaling Nandrolone. Deca-Max provides essentially the most perfect, safe, and LEGAL different to Nandrolone, and you won’t be
    losing any time or cash on combating nasty
    unwanted effects. Nevertheless, adding Arimidex or Aromasin for progesterone is
    essential for Deca as they work better at this job than Nolvadex.

    If you’re a brand new steroid user, gains of 20 lbs or more are
    easily achievable with the right food regimen. If you’re
    utilizing the slower esters of each these AAS, your positive aspects might be sluggish and
    regular but stable and maintainable. From the increase in protein synthesis to the collagen and therapeutic joint results,
    Nandrolone will accelerate your restoration process.
    Customers who don’t respond properly to Trenbolone will typically
    turn to Deca as an alternative, though the two compounds are quite different.
    Other AAS price comparing to Nandrolone are Dianabol and Testosterone.
    Suppose you do not get the expected results and outcomes at
    your dose. In that case, I’d begin to worry about what’s
    really in your Deca or NPP and think about finding another source on your gear quite than frequently upping your dose.
    Most guys will discover they can get every little thing out of Nandrolone at average doses, and the old-school guys again within the day weren’t identified to be taking excessive doses of something.
    Suppose I had to decide the 2 most beneficial functions of Nandrolone that make it stand out from different AAS.

    These are available in injection, inhalable, oral, and topical
    preparations. Synthetic steroids are used for treating varied well being
    conditions. For occasion, testosterone analogs can be used to deal with testosterone
    deficiency, and progesterone analogs are used in contraception drugs.
    After the injection, you may be asked to attend for a short period
    to ensure there are not any quick reactions. The physician could
    apply a small bandage or dressing on the injection web site for more relief.

    Reply

  9. There are many Anabolic steroid cycles and stacks we will put together, and of the various forms, few are as well-liked as a Winstrol cycle.
    Excellent for the weight-reduction plan athlete looking how to use steroids safely for bodybuilding
    – https://barolofashionshow.it/,
    rip up, excellent for the athlete seeking to enhance strength; a Winstrol cycle has one thing for everybody.
    It is true; the Stanozolol hormone is a relatively weak mass builder;
    in-fact, it’ll do little or no on this regard, however that does not take away from
    its excessive degree of importance.
    When you add Testosterone to Trenbolone and Anadrol, you get the advantages of all these three steroids collectively.
    Hair loss, thinning of hair, or balding is a side effect that most individuals
    are frightened of. Two of probably the most highly effective
    steroids are Clen (Clenbuterol) and Tren (Trenbolone). The typical Winstrol dosage for ladies is between 5 to 10 milligrams per day.

    However, particular person tolerance and preferences should be considered when determining
    the ideal dosage. It is just attainable to gauge such sensitivity as soon as a cycle
    is embarked upon.
    Its popularity with bodybuilders remains strong at
    present, and whether or not it’s used alone
    or stacked with another steroid, Testosterone Cypionate
    customers may be confident of excellent outcomes. As we’ve lined in this submit, Winstrol kicks
    in After about a week or two of constant use, you must begin to
    discover the results of Winstrol kicking in. You
    would possibly really feel more highly effective and
    energetic, and your muscular tissues will start to
    look harder and fuller. Nonetheless, keep in thoughts
    that everybody responds in one other way to steroids, so some folks might not see results till
    after a quantity of weeks of use. If you do not see any results after a couple of weeks, it’s
    possible that Winstrol isn’t the proper steroid for you.

    Some individuals shouldn’t take Winstrol because of the risk of great unwanted
    effects.
    We additionally present free teaching to anyone in need of knowledge
    on the best steroid(s) for their respective bodybuilding training
    program. Nonetheless, you would possibly be advised to go for an intensive medical
    checkup before working a Winny cycle, as underlying health issues could also be aggravated with the utilization of Winstrol or another steroid for that
    matter. Winstrol promotes lipolysis and the repartitioning of body fats into vitality.
    This is especially helpful whenever you exert lots of energy throughout HIIT or any aggressive
    athletic occasion. Stanozolol will also promote an increase in your metabolic rate which additional stimulates the burning of each
    visceral and body fat. Winny has a excessive bioavailability, it’s typically
    well-tolerated, and really light on your liver.
    Nonetheless, it’s not advisable to run a lengthy
    Winstrol cycle and/or frequently take very excessive doses.

    Anavar causes reductions in HDL ldl cholesterol, doubtlessly inflicting hypertension (high blood pressure) and increasing
    the risk of arteriosclerosis. However, in our lipid profile testing, Anavar solely causes mild cardiovascular
    strain compared to other anabolic steroids.

    These will be biased towards unlucky guys who are suffering from greater than common pimples and hair loss (who wants to go bald?).

    But if you don’t like injecting, then orals are nonetheless a perfectly viable choice.
    But that’s just one side of the story… The big consideration with
    these commonplace cycles is making progress over an extended period –
    years if that’s your objective. Each cycle ought to take you
    forward, not having you backtrack to make up for lost positive aspects.

    You may use a bunch of compounds on this cycle,
    but one will often be the MAIN compound that takes on the first
    anabolic function for the length of the cycle.
    In the event of troublesome adverse outcomes, it may be
    necessary to reassess the dosage or even contemplate discontinuing the use of Winstrol altogether.
    The first thing you should know is that Winstrol is a very mild oral anabolic steroid.
    Winny is mild in your very important organs, particularly your liver and kidneys.
    You additionally must know the recommended Winstrol cycle for newbies and intermediate stage
    bodybuilders alike.
    Winstrol is the most well-liked and well-known model
    name for the androgen and anabolic steroid Stanozolol. It is a by-product of dihydrotestosterone (DHT), which makes Winstrol much like testosterone.
    Importantly, Winstrol is taken into account to have a more powerful anabolic
    to androgenic impact in contrast with testosterone.
    Estrogen can help to inhibit sharp rises in blood strain by
    rising HDL levels; nonetheless, Winstrol doesn’t aromatize, causing excessive ranges of cardiovascular pressure.
    In research, women have taken megadoses of Anadrol (150 mg/day for 30 weeks) with out
    experiencing any signs of virilization. Popular oral steroids that might
    be stacked with Testosterone Cypionate include Anadrol, Anavar,
    Dianabol, and Winstrol.

    Reply

  10. And yet it is actually outstanding how many people emerged from basement bomb shelters with
    their devotion to a united Ukraine shaken but intact.
    Two IDPs from the war-wracked metropolis of Pervomaisk
    informed of weeks spent in a dim, cramped basement as Ukrainian brigades fired on the city and the massive pressure
    of separatist Cossack fighters within it (Fig.
    3). They held their tongues round their fervently separatist
    neighbors and each night time went to bed with the hope that a Ukrainian soldier
    would wake them with a knock on the basement door. When it grew
    to become clear that the knock would never come, that their native metropolis had been torn out of Ukraine, they packed a couple of belongings and
    drove the 15 kilometers to government-held territory.
    Please notice that those that haven’t used both clenbuterol or
    T3 in isolation beforehand shouldn’t try even the beginner variant of this cycle.

    As for one of the best time to take Oxandrolone, split
    it into two doses day by day at 5mg/each (once with breakfast and once more before
    bedtime). For additional strength positive aspects, mix with SARMs similar
    to Ostarine at 12.5mg per day for the primary 5 weeks, then enhance it to 25mg a day for
    weeks 6-8. [newline]Unlike men, girls don’t must do PCT, so there’s nothing else to do as quickly as the
    cycle ends. 80mg to 100mg day by day for eight weeks is a sophisticated Oxandrolone cycle, however extra so for the advanced consumer will be the addition of multiple other steroids in a strong stack.

    The lack of threat of water retention is a
    major benefit of Anavar and an enormous cause why it’s such a popular and potent chopping compound, including for competitive customers.
    T-three is often used for weight reduction as a outcome of it
    could help to increase the basal metabolic rate. Anabolic steroids usually are not solely expensive,
    however they may also be harmful.
    It isn’t recommended for the common or beginner female Clenbuterol user.
    A starting Clenbuterol dosage for women will usually be 20mcg or 40mcg.
    It ought to then be elevated every few days till you reach your desired
    maximum dose.
    Clenbuterol is a drug that was initially created as
    a bronchodilator to be used by folks affected by respiratory
    issues as a sympathomimetic amine. These individuals
    with persistent breathing disorders similar to
    bronchial asthma make use of Clenbuterol as a bronchodilator to
    make their respiratory easier. Clenbutrol is a pure various
    to Clenbuterol, and it comes with very few of the identical risks.
    For some people, these unwanted aspect effects are merely not worth
    the outcomes. Thus, combining the two is possible—[It is not suggested for females to make use of Testosterone].
    Nevertheless, it is nonetheless grouped
    with Steroids, and most Kai Greene Steroid Cycle (https://Wikis.Ece.Iastate.Edu) users will still
    use Testosterone in their cycle design as both a base or for the complete cycle.

    I started with very little and at all times put 110% into the gym to get to where I am now.
    From anabolic steroids to SARMs to peptides and ancillary drugs, I’ve done it in some unspecified time within the future in my life, and
    I can relate. No AAS can instantly have you ever burning fats like
    Clenbuterol can, so if that’s your number 1 objective,
    then Clen will all the time be the selection over any steroids.

    One notable distinction is that users frequently maintain muscle dimension once they discontinue trenbolone, whereas they typically lose intracellular water after they discontinue Dianabol or Anadrol.
    Anadrol is considered one of the most cardiotoxic
    steroids we now have encountered. Thus, this anabolic
    agent requires excessive caution, particularly
    for people who consume alcohol frequently or have beforehand experienced
    high blood pressure.
    The name Anavar is now not used at all for pharmaceutical-grade Oxandrolone.
    The capacity to lift heavier weights and work out at higher intensity.

    How a lot you can carry is decided by every particular
    person, but as a share, you’ll find a way to count on to be lifting 20% heavier
    or much more. That doesn’t imply pushing it till you’re injured – widespread sense rules
    should nonetheless apply, and extra consideration must be paid to
    relaxation between units.
    So, we all know that Anavar is insanely effective at delivering excellent results,
    but on the end of the day, steroids aren’t for everybody.
    Positive, we all want the outcomes, but lots
    of guys still won’t make the leap into truly using a steroid
    like Anavar. Potential side effects can embody deepening of the
    voice, physique hair development, clitoral enlargements, and menstrual irregularities.
    Females can, in fact, additionally see opposed effects within the areas of liver, kidney, and ldl
    cholesterol.

    Reply

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